\documentclass[twoside, 9pt]{extreport}
\usepackage{extsizes}
\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc}
\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
\usepackage{amsmath}
\usepackage{amssymb}
\usepackage{graphicx}
\usepackage[nott]{kpfonts}
\usepackage{float}
\usepackage{longtable}
\usepackage{booktabs}
\usepackage{tabularray}
\usepackage{lipsum}
\usepackage{nicefrac}
\usepackage{quoting}
\raggedbottom


% Where are our images?
\graphicspath{{images/}}

% Include bibliography in TOC without numbering
\usepackage[nottoc]{tocbibind}

% Let's set this as a half-letter sized sheet
\usepackage[
	paperheight=8.5in,
	paperwidth=5.5in,
	margin=0.5in
]{geometry}
\geometry{
%	paperheight=8.5in,
%	paperwidth=5.5in,
%	heightrounded,
%	margin=0.5in
}

% Adjust the top and bottom margins
\addtolength{\topmargin}{0.4in}
\addtolength{\textheight}{-0.5in}

% Set the header style
\usepackage{fancyhdr}
\pagestyle{fancy}
 \fancyhf{}
 \fancyhead[LE,RO]{\thepage}
 \fancyhead[RE,LO]{\textit{the little book of \LaTeX{}}}
% We won't use footers, but we'll keep this in case we change our minds.
% \cfoot{Page \thepage}
%\renewcommand{\footrulewidth}{0.5pt}

% Adjust cell spacing in tables
\usepackage{cellspace}
\cellspacetoplimit 6pt
\cellspacebottomlimit 6pt

% Make a nice border and box for the tops of our examples
\newcommand\klab[3]{\vspace{#1}\noindent{}\hrulefill~~\fbox{\texttt{~#2~}}~~\hrulefill\vspace{#3}}

% Add an \hrule with space above and below
\newcommand\krule[2]{\vspace{#1}\hrule\vspace{#2}}

% Make hrefs easier (must load package hyperref}
\newcommand\kref[2]{\href{#1}{{\texttt{#2}}}}

% Make including standalone items easier
\newcommand\kpic[2]{\bigskip%
\noindent\includegraphics[scale=#1]{#2}%
\medskip}

% Include sections and subsections in the TOC
% \setcounter{tocdepth}{1}

% We will probably want some two- or three-column sections
\usepackage{multicol}

% Stop resetting the footnote count after each chapter
\counterwithout{footnote}{chapter}

% Let's wrap some images
\usepackage{wrapfig}

% Use tab stops when we need to (especially in footnotes)
\usepackage{tabto}
% Define 18 tab stops (at 1/4" intervals)
\NumTabs{18}

% Use strikethrough
\usepackage{ulem}

% Make things neater. Thanks /u/-LeopardShark-
\usepackage{microtype}

% Use line numbers with code samples
% \begin{Verbatim}...\end{Verbatim} <-- Note the capitalization!
\usepackage{fancyvrb}
% Break lines inside this environment:
\usepackage{fvextra}

% Actual comment blocks
\usepackage{verbatim}

% Control spacing in lists
\usepackage{enumitem}

\raggedbottom

% Pictures!
\usepackage{tikz}

% Cancel units in math mode!
\usepackage{cancel}

% Better control over line-spacing
\usepackage{setspace}

% Use nice fractions
\usepackage{nicefrac}

% Keep the footnotes at the bottom of the page
\usepackage[bottom]{footmisc}

% Add custom widths to tables
\usepackage{array}

% Use chapter names in references
\usepackage{nameref}

% Include URLs, but hide the big red box it puts around them in the pdf.
\usepackage[hidelinks]{hyperref}

%%%% Document Information %%%%%
\author{{\small Kenneth John Odle}}
\title{
 {\Huge the little book of \LaTeX{}} \\
 \vspace{5em}
 {\normalsize An Incomplete Guide \\
 \bigskip
 1\textsuperscript{st} Edition \\
 Typeset in \LaTeX{} (of course!)}
}
\date{{\small \the\year{}}}

\begin{document}
\maketitle

\section*{}

\thispagestyle{empty}

All contents  \copyright\the\year{} Kenneth John Odle

\bigskip

\noindent{}FYI, this is made in \LaTeX \,using the \texttt{extreport} document class. (As opposed to the \texttt{report} document class, \texttt{extreport} lets me put everything in a 9 point font.) It then gets exported to a letterhalf (5.5 in x 8.5 in) pdf, which then gets made into a booklet using PDF Booklet (\href{https://pdfbooklet.sourceforge.io/wordpress/}{\texttt{https://pdfbooklet.sourceforge.io/wordpress/}}).

\bigskip

\noindent{}I am adding commits as I go to my personal git server. If you are interested, you can view it at

\medskip

\noindent{}\kref{https://git.kjodle.net/kjodle/little-book-of-LaTeX}{https://git.kjodle.net/kjodle/little-book-of-LaTeX}

\medskip

I may do a second volume of this, or I may simply do a second edition. If I do, you'll be able to find it there.

\tableofcontents

\listoftables


\chapter{Beginnings}

\section{About the Author}

I am neither a mathematician nor a physicist, but I've been fascinated with typography for as long as I can remember.\footnote{I majored in biology and English, so poking around in old books probably had a lot to do with it.} I finally decided to take the plunge and learn \LaTeX{}, but because I have a project-based mind, I needed a project to learn it. I ended up creating a zine about Linux,\footnote{Which you can read about at \kref{https://just13.click/thecodex/}{https://just13.click/thecodex/}} typeset entirely in \LaTeX{}. It's been a fun ongoing project, and I've learned a lot as a result. I finally decided that instead of keeping notes everywhere (mostly in the preambles of the documents I've been working on) I decided to write a little book that recorded what I've learned to use as a reference guide. If I had something like this when I started, things probably would have gone much more smoothly for me. A lot of this material has been previously published in that zine, but there is quite a bit here which is new.

\paragraph{A Caveat} First, I am far from an expert in these matters. What follows is pretty much a listing of what I've gleaned from hours spent searching the internet and trying things out myself. 

Second, some things will look differently and behave differently for you depending on variables such as the document class (see below) you are using and which other packages you have loaded. My rules for learning things like this are always:

\begin{enumerate}[noitemsep]
	\item Don't compare yourself to others. Your mileage can—and will—vary, because people learn things at different rates and in different orders.
	\item Practice doesn't make perfect, but it does make things less shitty.
	\item A willingness to experiment is your best guide. Be sure to document your experiments.
	\item You will get errors as part of the learning process. Your goal should always be to get better errors.
\end{enumerate}  

When (not \textit{if}) you have problems, please consult the ``Troubleshooting'' chapter. It's not going to solve all, if any, of your problems, but it will suggest a general problem-shooting algorithm that will help you figure out where things are going wrong.

Also, if you have access to the source code so you can see how other people have done things, so much the better. (You can view the source code for this book at \href{https://git.kjodle.net/kjodle/little-book-of-LaTeX}{\texttt{https://git.kjodle.net/kjodle/little-book-of-LaTeX}}.) 

\section{Other Sources of Help}\label{othersources}

These are listed roughly in the order of how often I consult them.

\begin{itemize}[noitemsep]
	\item \textbf{TeX - LaTeX Stack Exchange} — \kref{https://tex.stackexchange.com/}{https://tex.stackexchange.com/}
	\item \textbf{Overleaf} — Overleaf is an online \LaTeX{} editor. They have both free and paid options. They have excellent documentation at \kref{https://www.overleaf.com/learn}{https://www.overleaf.com/\\learn} and free templates at \kref{https://www.overleaf.com/latex/templates}{https://www.overleaf.com/latex/templates}
	\item The \textbf{\LaTeX{} Community} has a helpful forum at \kref{https://latex.org/forum/}{https://latex.org/forum/}
	\item \textbf{texblog — because \LaTeX{} matters} has a number of useful articles but hasn't been updated in a while. You can read it at \kref{https://texblog.org/}{https://texblog.org/}
	\item \textbf{CTAN — Comprehensive \TeX{} Archive Network} — \kref{https://ctan.org/}{https://ctan.org/} has lots of good information. This is where I go to find information about packages.
	\item \textbf{LaTeX Wikibook} — \kref{https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/LaTeX}{https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/LaTeX}
	\item \textbf{Dickimaw Books — \LaTeX{} Resources} — A website by a retired math professor with some useful information.\\ \kref{https://www.dickimaw-books.com/latexresources.html}{https://www.dickimaw-books.com/latexresources.html}
	\item \textbf{\TeX{} FAQ} — \kref{https://texfaq.org/}{https://texfaq.org/}
	\item \textbf{texdoc online documentation} — The \TeX{} and \LaTeX{} documentation lookup system. \kref{https://texdoc.org/index.html}{https://texdoc.org/index.html}
	\item \textbf{The Prac\TeX{} Journal} — The online journal of the Tex Users Group. No new issues since 2012. This journal does not contain as much useful information, but it does contain \textit{interesting} information.\\ \kref{https://tug.org/pracjourn/2012-1/toc.html}{https://tug.org/pracjourn/2012-1/toc.html}
	\item \textbf{\textsc{TUGboat}} — The communications of the \TeX{} Users Group. Again, there is less useful information to a \LaTeX{} novice, but lots of \textit{interesting} information. \kref{https://www.tug.org/TUGboat/}{https://www.tug.org/TUGboat/}
\end{itemize}


\chapter{\LaTeX{} Basics}

\section{Files vs. Documents}

In this book, I use the word \textit{file} to refer to the \texttt{.tex} file you are entering text and code into, whereas I use the word \textit{document} to refer to the output you get from processing that file, which is usually a \texttt{.pdf} file/document.

\section{Files}

\LaTeX{} uses plain text files with a file extension of \texttt{.tex}. That's it! They contain plain text only and no binary codes or hidden formatting extensions. You can use any text editor, although a GUI is available for most operating systems.

\section{File Structure}

Every \LaTeX{} file has two parts: 

\begin{enumerate}[noitemsep]
	\item A \textbf{preamble} in which you declare the class and add any packages you may need, as well as set other variables such as the title and author.
	\item A \textbf{document} environment which contains the actual text of the document.
\end{enumerate}

If you are familiar with \texttt{html}, these correspond roughly to the \texttt{<head>} and \texttt{<body>} elements.

\subsection{The Preamble}

Within the preamble, you can declare the document's \textit{class}, which is a description of the type of document you are creating. The most common classes are summarized in section \ref{sec:document-classes}. A typical class declaration looks like:

\begin{Verbatim}
\documentclass[twoside]{report}
\end{Verbatim}

The class is described between curly brackets, but you can also include several \textit{options} in square brackets. The above document class is a two-sided report. ``Two-sided'' means that it may have different margins, headers, and footers on right and left handed pages. Other options, such as paper size and font size, are available.

\subsection{The \texttt{document} Environment}

Anything not in the preamble goes in the \texttt{document} environment, which looks like this:

\begin{Verbatim}[commandchars=\+\(\)]
\begin{document}
     +textit(…your stuff…)
\end{document}
\end{Verbatim}

\subsection{Document Structure}

Each \LaTeX{} document can be divided into a hierarchical structure consisting of the following sections:

\begin{verbatim}
Part
  Chapter
    Section
      Subsection
        Subsubsection
          Paragraph
            Subparagraph
\end{verbatim}

\noindent{} To add one, use: 

\kpic{1}{standalone/build/book[]}

Notice that we have the option \texttt{[Books]} which describes how this chapter will appear in the table of contents. To prevent a section from being numbered or appearing in the table of contents, replace this entire option with an asterisk:

\kpic{1}{standalone/build/book*}

For best results, stick to the hierarchical structure shown above, as this is also how each section will be numbered. See the table of contents of this booklet as an example.

\section{Document Classes}\label{sec:document-classes}

The different types of document classes help you build a specific type of document. Here is a brief description of the most common classes:

\bigskip

% Provide some additional spacing in this table; may move this to preamble later
\setlength{\tabcolsep}{14pt}
\renewcommand{\arraystretch}{1.4}

\begin{longtblr}
[
	caption = {Document Classes in \LaTeX{} },
	label   = {tbl:docclasses}
]{
%	width   = {10cm},
	colspec = { X[1,l] X[4,l] },
	hlines  = {0.75pt,solid},
	vlines  = {0.75pt,solid},
	rows    = {5mm, m, rowsep=1.5pt}
}
	\textbf{Class} & \textbf{Usage} \\
	\textbf{article} & Articles for scientific or mathematical journals, short reports, and any kind of short document which does not require separate chapters or parts. \\
	\textbf{report} & A long article form that contains chapters. It is often used for small books and theses. \\
	\textbf{book} & Used to typeset actual books. It can contain chapters and parts, left and right pages, frontmatter, etc. \\
	\textbf{beamer} & Slide decks (It has supplanted the \texttt{slides} class.) \\
	\textbf{letter} & For writing letters \\
	\textbf{exam} & For producing exams and quizzes \\
	\textbf{proc} & For writing meeting proceedings \\
\end{longtblr}


\section{Paragraphs and White Space}

To start a new paragraph, simply skip a line. \LaTeX{} compresses white space, so if you are importing text from a text document, any lines that are adjacent to each other will be in the same paragraph. Additionally, multiple spaces will appear as a single space. For example, this code:

\begin{Verbatim}[frame=lines, numbers=left, label=\fbox{White Space Example}, breaklines=true, framesep=3mm]
This is the first paragraph. 
This text, although it is on a separate line, is also part of the first paragraph.

We have skipped a line, so this starts a new paragraph. 
This line is also in the second paragraph.

Readers will             not      see 
         all of            these
spaces.
\end{Verbatim}

\noindent{} renders like this:

\klab{6pt}{White Space Example}{6pt}
%\vspace{2mm}

This is the first paragraph. 
This text, although it is on a separate line, is also part of the first paragraph.

We have skipped a line, so this starts a new paragraph. 
This line is also in the second paragraph.

Readers will             not      see 
         all of            these
spaces.

\krule{2mm}{0mm}

\section{Comments}

Comments are created by adding a \texttt{\%} to the line. Anything beyond the percent sign will be ignored when your document is compiled. 

To create multi-line comments, surround those lines with \verb|\iffalse| and \verb|\fi|: 

\begin{Verbatim}[frame=lines, numbers=left, xleftmargin=5mm, framesep=3mm, breaklines=true, label=\fbox{Multi-line Comment Block}]
\iffalse
These lines will not appear in your published text.
That is because they are surrounded by \iffalse and \fi.
If you didn't use that construction, you would need to put a \% in front of each line.
\fi
\end{Verbatim}

If the use of \verb|\iffalse| and \verb|\fi| is not intuitive to you, you can also load the \texttt{verbatim} package and use \verb|\begin{comment}| and \verb|\end{comment}| to surround multi-line comments.

\section{Environments}

\noindent{} This is where \LaTeX{} shows its power, as environments are used to to take care of typesetting tasks. Every environment begins with \verb+\begin{<environ+ \verb+ment>}+ and ends with \verb+\end{<environment>}+. In fact, we've already seen one environment: the \texttt{document} environment, which encompasses our entire document. 

\texttt{enumerate} and \texttt{itemize} are used for creating lists. See the chapter ``\nameref{listenv}'' on page \pageref{listenv} for more information.

Many packages introduce additional environments. For other useful environments that do not require additional packages (but which can easily be expanded upon by other packages), please see the chapter ``\nameref{specenv}'' on page \pageref{specenv} for more information.

\chapter{Formatting Words}

\section{Font Variations}

\LaTeX{} has various ways of formatting type: 

\begin{longtblr}
[
	caption = {Font Variations in \LaTeX{} },
	label   = {tbl:fontvar}
]{
	width   = {114.3mm},
	colspec = { X[1,l] X[2,l] X[1,l] },
	hlines  = {0.75pt,solid},
	vline{1,4}   = {0.75pt,solid},
	rows    = {5mm, m, rowsep=1.5pt}
}
	\textbf{Effect} & \textbf{Code} & \textbf{Example} \\
	Bold & \Verb+\textbf{Bold}+ & \textbf{Bold} \\
	Italic & \Verb+\textit{Italic}+ & \textit{Italic} \\
	Slanted & \Verb+\textsl{Slanted}+ & \textsl{Slanted} \\
	Emphasis & \Verb+\emph{Emphasis}+ & \emph{Emphasis} \\
	Typewriter & \Verb+\texttt{Typewriter}+ & \texttt{Typewriter} \\
	Small Caps & \Verb+\textsc{Small Caps}+ & \textsc{Small Caps} \\
	Sans Serif & \Verb+\textsf{Sans Serif}+ & \textsf{Sans Serif} \\
\end{longtblr}


It is possible to combine these. For example, to write \textit{\textsc{Italic text in Small Caps}}, you would use:

\bigskip

\noindent{}\verb+\textit{\textsc{Italic text in Small Caps}}+

\paragraph{Deprecated Code} — Note that in \LaTeX2e{} code such as \verb+{\it some text}+ and \verb+{\bf some text}+ are deprecated.
%\footnote{(See ~\cite{website:stexc002} and ~\cite{website:stexc003}.)}
\footnote{See \kref{https://tex.stackexchange.com/questions/41681/correct-way-to-bold-italicize-text}{https://tex.stackexchange.com/questions/41681/correct-way-to-bold-italicize-text} and \kref{https://tex.stackexchange.com/questions/516/does-it-matter-if-i-use-textit-or-it-bfseries-or-bf-etc}{https://tex.stackexchange.com/questions/516/does-it-matter-if-i-use-textit-or-it-bfs\\eries-or-bf-etc} for more information.}

\section{Size Variations}

\subsection{Global}

To set the overall size of text in your document, pass it to your \texttt{documentclass} command as an option. For most classes (\texttt{article}, \texttt{book}, \texttt{report}, \texttt{letter}, and \texttt{proc}), the default font size is 10 pt, but 11pt and 12 pt are also available. 

These same classes also have \texttt{ext} versions (\texttt{extarticle}, \texttt{extbook}, and so forth). With these classes, the other available size options are 8pt, 9pt, 11pt, 12pt, 14pt, 17pt, and 20pt.

The default for the \texttt{memoir} class is 10pt, and the other available options are 9pt, 11pt, 12pt, 14pt, 17pt, 20pt, 25pt, 30pt, 36pt, 48pt, and 60pt.

The default for the the \texttt{beamer} class is 11pt, and the other available options are 8pt, 9pt, 10pt, 11pt, 12pt, 14pt, 17pt, and 20pt.

You can also add the \texttt{extsizes} package, which gives you these additional document classes: \texttt{extarticle}, \texttt{extreport}, \texttt{extletter}, and \texttt{extproc}. If you use one of those document classes, you get access to other global sizes: 8pt, 9pt, 10pt, 11pt, 12pt, 14pt, 17pt, and 20pt.

\bigskip

\noindent{}This book contains this in the preamble:

\begin{verbatim}
\documentclass[twoside, 9pt]{extreport}
\end{verbatim}

\subsection{Local}

You can also change the size of a portion of text locally. These are the defaults that are built into \LaTeX{}:

\begin{longtblr}
[
	caption = {Local Size Commands},
	label   = {tbl:localsizecommands}
]{
	width   = {8cm},
	colspec = { X[1,l] X[1,c] },
	hlines  = {0.75pt,solid},
	vlines  = {0.75pt,solid},
	rows    = {5mm, m, rowsep=1.5pt}
}
\textbf{Markup} & \textbf{Renders as} \\
\Verb+{{\tiny example}}+ & {\tiny example} \\
\Verb+{{\scriptsize example}}+ & {\scriptsize example} \\
\Verb+{{\footnotesize example}}+ & {\footnotesize example} \\
\Verb+{{\small example}}+ & {\small example} \\
\Verb+{{\normalsize example}}+ & {\normalsize example} \\
\Verb+{{\large example}}+ & {\large example} \\
\Verb+{{\Large example}}+ & {\Large example} \\
\Verb+{{\LARGE example}}+ & {\LARGE example} \\
\Verb+{{\huge example}}+ & {\huge example} \\
\Verb+{{\Huge example}}+ & {\Huge example} \\
\end{longtblr}

Note that all of these sizes are relative to the base size you set up in your preamble when declaring your document class.

\section{Displaying Code}

For more information, see the section ``\nameref{codeexp}'' on page \pageref{codeexp}. 


\chapter{Formatting Paragraphs}

\section{Alignment}

By default, \LaTeX{} fully justifies text. That is, there are equal margins for each line on both the left and the right sides.

\subsection{Centered Text}

To center text, surround it with a \texttt{center} environment:

\begin{Verbatim}
\begin{center}
This text is centered.
\end{center}
\end{Verbatim}

produces this text:

\begin{center}
This text is centered.
\end{center}

\subsection{Left-Aligned Text}

To produce left-aligned text with a ragged right edge, use the \texttt{flushleft} environment:

\begin{Verbatim}[]
\begin{flushleft}
This text will be left-aligned with a ragged right edge.
\end{flushleft}
\end{Verbatim}

\begin{flushleft}
You don’t know about me without you have read a book by the name of \textit{The Adventures of Tom Sawyer}; but that ain’t no matter. That book was made by Mr. Mark Twain, and he told the truth, mainly. There was things which he stretched, but mainly he told the truth. That is nothing. I never seen anybody but lied one time or another, without it was Aunt Polly, or the widow, or maybe Mary. Aunt Polly—Tom’s Aunt Polly, she is—and Mary, and the Widow Douglas is all told about in that book, which is mostly a true book, with some stretchers, as I said before.\end{flushleft}

\subsection{Right-Aligned Text}

To produce right-aligned text with a ragged left edge, use the \texttt{flushright} environment:

\begin{Verbatim}[]
\begin{flushright}
This text will be left-aligned with a ragged right edge.
\end{flushright}
\end{Verbatim}

\begin{flushright}
You don’t know about me without you have read a book by the name of \textit{The Adventures of Tom Sawyer}; but that ain’t no matter. That book was made by Mr. Mark Twain, and he told the truth, mainly. There was things which he stretched, but mainly he told the truth. That is nothing. I never seen anybody but lied one time or another, without it was Aunt Polly, or the widow, or maybe Mary. Aunt Polly—Tom’s Aunt Polly, she is—and Mary, and the Widow Douglas is all told about in that book, which is mostly a true book, with some stretchers, as I said before.
\end{flushright}

\section{Vertical Space}

\subsection{\texttt{vspace}}

\section{Horizontal Space}

\subsection{\texttt{hspace}}

\section{Phantoms}

Sometimes you need to insert a blank space that is the width of a particular character or stretch of space. To do this, you will need to use the \texttt{phantom} command.

\begin{itemize}[noitemsep]
	\item \verb+\phantom+~ inserts an empty box with the same dimensions (horizontal as well as vertical) as the argument.
	\item \verb+\hphantom+~ inserts an empty box that has zero height, zero depth, but the width of its argument.
	\item \verb+\vphantom+~ inserts an empty box that has the height and depth of the argument, but zero width.
\end{itemize}

\textit{height} is the length above the baseline and \textit{depth} is the length below the baseline. A character such as ``w'' will have a height but zero depth, and ``y'' has height as well as depth.

\section{Line Spacing}
\LaTeX{} was designed to write documents; as such, its ability to fine-tune certain document parameters, such as line-spacing, is fairly limited out of the box. You can fine-tune this with the \texttt{setspace} package. Add that to your preamble, and you can adjust the line spacing of your document by adding either \texttt{singlespacing}, \texttt{onehalfspacing}, or the \texttt{doublespacing} command to your preamble.

That gives you the versatility that you had with a typewriter. To set more precise line spacing, you can use the \texttt{setstretch} command in your preamble:

\begin{verbatim}
\setstretch{1.1}
\end{verbatim}

\noindent which sets a line spacing equivalent to 1.1 lines. If you want to change the line spacing for just a portion of your document, use the \texttt{spacing} environment:

\begin{verbatim}
\begin{spacing}{2.5}
Your widely spaced text goes here.
\end{spacing}
\end{verbatim}

\section{Indents}


\chapter{Tables}

To break lines in a table cell, use \verb+\newline+ or add the \texttt{makecell} package.

If you need a table that breaks across pages, use the \texttt{longtable} package, which takes pretty much the same options as the \texttt{tabular} environment.


\chapter{Formatting Pages}

\section{Page Size}

The usual way to define a page size is to pass it as an option to the document class:

\begin{verbatim}
\documentclass[letterpaper]{article}
\end{verbatim}

\noindent{}The widths and heights of the predefined page sizes in \LaTeX{} are:\footnote{I have included the ratio, because you can see how metric sizes are related. The United States really needs to get its shit together and adopt the metric system. There is not a printer or a filing cabinet available that cannot handle metric sized paper.}

\begin{longtblr}
[
	caption = {Default Paper Sizes in \LaTeX{} },
	label   = {tbl:defpapersizes}
]{
	width   = {114.3mm},
	colspec = { X[1.4,l] X[1,l] X[1,l] X[0.8,l] },
	hlines  = {0.75pt,solid},
	vline{1,5}  = {0.75pt,solid},
	rows    = {5mm, m, rowsep=1.5pt}
}
	\textbf{Option} & \textbf{Width} & \textbf{Height} & \textbf{Ratio} \\
	a4paper & 210 mm & 297 mm & 1.4\\
	a5paper & 148 mm & 210 mm & 1.4\\
	b5paper & 176 mm & 250 mm & 1.4 \\
	letterpaper & 8.5 in & 11 in  & 1.30\\
	legalpaper & 8.5 in & 14 in & 1.64 \\
	executivepaper & 7.25 in & 10.5 in & 1.45 \\
\end{longtblr}


\section{Customizing Page Sizes Using \texttt{geometry}}

The \texttt{geometry} package provides highly granular detail over your page layout. Its use is not highly intuitive, however. I use it on almost every single document I create, but I am still unsure that I am using it properly. Experimentation is always a good thing, and I suggest changing one parameter at a time when experimenting. 

You can add options in the usual way:

\begin{verbatim}
\usepackage[
	paperheight=8.5in,
	paperwidth=5.5in,
	margin=0.5in
]{geometry}
\end{verbatim}

\noindent{}but you can also add options using the \verb|\geometry| option:

\begin{verbatim}
\usepackage{geometry}
\geometry{
	paperheight=8.5in,
	paperwidth=5.5in,
	margin=0.5in
}
\end{verbatim}

\section{Customizing Pages}

\subsection{Omitting Headers and Footers on a Page}

To \textit{omit} the headers and footers on a given page, include the \texttt{titlesec} package in the preamble, and add this somewhere \textit{after} the start of the page.

\begin{verbatim}
\thispagestyle{empty}
\end{verbatim}

\subsection{Removing Page Numbers from ``Part'' Pages}

Chapters that are grouped into parts will have a ``Part'' page at the front of them. Surprisingly, these pages still have page numbers. You can remove them by adding the \texttt{nonumonpart} package.

\subsection{Adding Additional Text to ``Part'' Pages}

In actual books, a ``part'' pages often contain some sort of epigraph. You can make the text an optional argument to the \verb|\part| command by adding this to the preamble:\footnote{As described by \href{https://tex.stackexchange.com/users/1090/david-carlisle}{David Carlisle} at \kref{https://tex.stackexchange.com/questions/336361/how-to-write-text-after-part}{https://tex.stackexchange.com/questions/336361/\\how-to-write-text-after-part}.}

\begin{verbatim}
\makeatletter
\let\old@endpart\@endpart
\renewcommand\@endpart[1][]{%
\begin{quote}#1\end{quote}%
\old@endpart}
\makeatother
\end{verbatim}

To use this, add whatever text you want on the part page in square brackets:

\begin{Verbatim}[frame=lines, framesep=6mm, breaklines=true, label=\fbox{Text on Part Pages Example}]
\part[TOC Title]{A New Hope…}[
\vspace{3em} 
	\begin{center}
		\textit{A long time ago, in a galaxy far, far away…}
	\end{center}
]
\end{Verbatim}

Which gives us something like this:

\begin{center}
\fbox{\includegraphics[scale=0.8]{part}}
\end{center}

Note that everything gets wrapped in a \texttt{quote} environment, but that environment accepts additional commands and environments which will give you a great deal of control over how this text is displayed.

\paragraph{If you are wondering how this works…}\texttt{makeatletter} changes the \texttt{@} to the ``letter'' category code so that the current document has access to package internal macros. \texttt{makeatother} changes it back to a letter so you can use it in your document.\footnote{This gets into the internal workings of LaTeX and so is far beyond the scope of this book.\par{} However, there is some good information at \href{https://tex.stackexchange.com/questions/8351/what-do-makeatletter-and-makeatother-do}{\texttt{https://tex.stackexchange.com/questions/8351/what-\\do-makeatletter-and-makeatother-do}} and at \href{https://www.tug.org/pipermail/tugindia/2002-January/000178.html}{\texttt{https://www.tug.org/pipermail/tugindia/2002-Jan\\uary/000178.html}} if you are interested. A complete list of category codes can be found at \href{https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/TeX/catcode}{\texttt{https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/TeX/catcode}}}

\verb|\let\old@endpart\@endpart| says ``take the old value for \texttt{endpart} (which is part of the \texttt{part} function) and give it this new value that I'm about to describe''.

The rest of it (that is, the \texttt{renewcommand} part) redefines the \texttt{endpart} to now include a \verb|\quote| environment, which is quite appropriate for an epigraph. 

\subsection{Including Page Numbers on ``Chapter'' Pages}

In most document classes, the ``chapter'' pages do not contain page numbers. If you would like them to have page numbers, add this to the preamble:

\begin{verbatim}
\usepackage[]{titlesec}
\assignpagestyle{\chapter}{fancy}
\end{verbatim}


\chapter{List Environments}\label{listenv}

A list is a series of items that are related solely by being a subset of something else. Their relationship may be ordered or unordered. Ordered lists are usually numbered (although other items can be used, such as letters), and unordered lists usually use a symbol, such as a bullet, to denote each items. 

Lists in \LaTeX{} can be nested, as the following examples will show.

\section{Enumerate}

\texttt{enumerate} is used to create numbered lists. They can be nested to create an outline. To prevent \LaTeX{} from adding a lot of space between the item numbers, add the \texttt{enumitem} package pass the \texttt{[noitemsep]} to the environment. 

For example, this code:

\begin{Verbatim}[frame=lines, numbers=left, xleftmargin=5mm, label=\fbox{Enumerate Example}, framesep=6mm]
\paragraph{The First Punic War}
\begin{enumerate}[noitemsep]
\item Carthage and Rome
	\begin{enumerate}
	\item Beginning of Foreign Conquests
	\item The Origin of Carthage
	\item Government of Carthage
	\end{enumerate}
\item Operations in the First Punic War
	\begin{enumerate}
	\item Outbreak of the War in Sicily
	\item Capture of Messana and Agrigentum
	\end{enumerate}
\item Events Following the War
\end{enumerate}
\end{Verbatim}

\noindent{} produces this output:

\klab{0pt}{Enumerate Example}{0pt}

\paragraph{The First Punic War}
\begin{spacing}{0.7}
\begin{enumerate}[noitemsep]
\item Carthage and Rome
	\begin{enumerate}
	\item Beginning of Foreign Conquests
	\item The Origin of Carthage
	\item Government of Carthage
	\end{enumerate}
\item Operations in the First Punic War
	\begin{enumerate}
	\item Outbreak of the War in Sicily
	\item Capture of Messana and Agrigentum
	\end{enumerate}
\item Events Following the War
\end{enumerate}
\end{spacing}
\vspace{2mm} \hrule

\section{Itemize}

Similar to the \texttt{enumerate} environment, the \texttt{itemize} environment creates bulleted lists, which can also be indented.

As an example, we'll use the above example, but in a bulleted list:

\begin{Verbatim}[frame=lines, numbers=left, xleftmargin=5mm, label=\fbox{Itemize Example}, framesep=6mm]
\paragraph{The First Punic War}
\begin{itemize}[noitemsep]
\item Carthage and Rome
	\begin{itemize}
	\item Beginning of Foreign Conquests
	\item The Origin of Carthage
	\item Government of Carthage
	\end{itemize}
\item Operations in the First Punic War
	\begin{itemize}
	\item Outbreak of the War in Sicily
	\item Capture of Messana and Agrigentum
	\end{itemize}
\item Events Following the War
\end{itemize}
\end{Verbatim}

\newpage

\noindent{} produces this output:

\klab{0pt}{Itemize Example}{0pt}

\paragraph{The First Punic War}
\begin{spacing}{0.7}
\begin{itemize}[noitemsep]
\item Carthage and Rome
	\begin{itemize}
	\item Beginning of Foreign Conquests
	\item The Origin of Carthage
	\item Government of Carthage
	\end{itemize}
\item Operations in the First Punic War
	\begin{itemize}
	\item Outbreak of the War in Sicily
	\item Capture of Messana and Agrigentum
	\end{itemize}
\item Events Following the War
\end{itemize}
\end{spacing}
\vspace{2mm} \hrule \vspace{4mm}

\section{Customizing List Environments}

You can replace the bullets with any math symbol availabe in \LaTeX{} like this:

\begin{Verbatim}[frame=lines, numbers=left, xleftmargin=5mm, label=\fbox{Bullets Example}, framesep=6mm]
\begin{itemize}[noitemsep]
	\item[$\Box$] First item
	\item[$\aleph$] Second item
	\item[$\triangle$] Third item
\end{itemize}
\end{Verbatim}

\noindent{} which produces this output:

\klab{8pt}{Bullets Example}{0pt}

\begin{itemize}[noitemsep]
	\item[$\Box$] First item
	\item[$\aleph$] Second item
	\item[$\triangle$] Third item
\end{itemize}


\chapter{Special Environments}\label{specenv}

\LaTeX{} includes a number of built-in environments which are useful out-of-the-box, but can often be improved upon by adding additional packages. In this chapter, we'll take a look at some of them, and examine how other packages extend their functionality.

\section{Code Blocks}\label{codeexp}

You have a few different options when trying to display code. For code which is not executable, you can always format it as typewriter text by wrapping it in \verb+\texttt{code}+. This will, generally, display it in a sans-serif font.

The problem with this approach is that \LaTeX{} will attempt to execute any commands that you have included in that wrapper. An alternative to this is to use the \verb+\verb+ command. \verb+\verb+ does not need to use curly brackets (i.e., { and }) to contain its argument. Rather, it can contain its argument in between any two symbols which are \textit{not} contained it its argument. Two common options are the pipe symbol (\texttt{|}) and the plus sign (\texttt{+}). For example, to write \verb+verb+ in our document, we could include either \verb+\verb|\verb|+ in our file or \verb|\verb+\verb+|. We could just as easily write this as \verb2\verb4\verb42. In this case, the character ``4'' is used as a delimiter to indicate what should be output directly to the document.

As usefule as \verb+\verb+ is, it has one drawback: it does not wrap. That is, if whatever you place between the delimiters is longer than the line length, it will simply go off the page. Here's an example: \verb+verb|This text is longer than the line length and will simply go off the page|+. 

The only way around that is to break that text into two parts like this: 

\begin{Verbatim}[breaklines=true]
\verb|This text is longer than the line length| \\ \verb| and will simply go off the page|
\end{Verbatim}

It works, but it's clunky. If you change anything around those two \texttt{verb} commands, you'll need to adjust what is contained within each of them.

For longer code examples, you will need to use the built-in environment \texttt{verbatim}, which makes use of the \verb|\begin{verbatim}| and \verb|\end{verbatim}| commands to define the environment. 

To gain more control over those environments, you can use the package \texttt{fancyvrb} (which uses the \texttt{Verbatim} environment—note the capital letter). You can add options in square brackets after the \texttt{begin} command. For example, to format the example blocks in this document, I am using this code:

\begin{Verbatim}[frame=lines, numbers=left, xleftmargin=5mm, label=\fbox{Verbatim Example}, framesep=6mm, breaklines=true, commandchars=\+\(\)]
\begin{Verbatim}[frame=lines, numbers=left, xleftmargin=5mm, label=\fbox{Bullets Example}, framesep=6mm]
\begin{itemize}[noitemsep]
	\item[$\Box$] First item
	\item[$\aleph$] Second item
	\item[$\triangle$] Third item
\end{itemize}
\ +!+!+!+!+!+! end{Verbatim}
\end{Verbatim}

Here's a brief breakdown of what those options do:

\begin{itemize}[noitemsep]
	\item \texttt{frame=lines} puts a line at the top and bottom of the code block. Other options are \texttt{leftline}, \texttt{topline}, \texttt{bottomline}, and \texttt{single} (which puts a box around the code block).
	\item \texttt{numbers=left} adds line numbers to the left side of the code block.
	\item \texttt{xleftmargin=5mm} adds a five millimeter margin to the left side, so that the line numbers are not hanging off into space.
	\item \texttt{label=} adds a label to the top of the code block. Putting it in an \texttt{fbox} adds a border around it.
\end{itemize}

There are numerous other options in this package; please see the package documentation for more details

The \texttt{fvextra} package adds even more options for the \texttt{Verbatim} environment. Again, there are too many to list here; please see the package documentation, which is extensive. It does have the handy \texttt{Verb} command (note the capitalization), which works inside of tables.

If you still need even more options, you can try the \texttt{listings} package, which I have yet to try.

\section{Quotations}

I like using quotations\footnote{And here I'm going to be persnickety and point out that the \textit{noun} is, properly, ``quotation'' and the \textit{verb} is ``quote''. This is a battle which I will eventually lose.} in my work, and \LaTeX{} does indeed provide two different—and often misunderstood—environments for using quotations. \footnote{For much of this information, I am indebted to the \LaTeX{} WikiBook at \kref{https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/LaTeX/Paragraph_Formatting}{https://en.wikibooks.org/\\wiki/LaTeX/Paragraph\_Formatting}}

Both of them are list environments, so they start with a \texttt{begin} command and end with an \texttt{end} command, and use \verb+\item+ to delineate their contents.

\subsection{\texttt{quote}}

The \texttt{quote} environment is meant to be used for a short quotation, or a series of small quotations, separated by blank lines.

\begin{quote}
	\item A rose by any other name would smell as sweet. \\ —William Shakespeare
	\item \textit{He travels the fastest who travels alone.} \\ —Rudyard Kipling
\end{quote}


\subsection{\texttt{quotation}}

The \texttt{quotation} environment indents the first line of each paragraph, so it is meant for longer quotations of more than one paragraph.

\begin{quotation}
	\item You don’t know about me without you have read a book by the name of The Adventures of Tom Sawyer; but that ain’t no matter. That book was made by Mr. Mark Twain, and he told the truth, mainly. There was things which he stretched, but mainly he told the truth. That is nothing. I never seen anybody but lied one time or another, without it was Aunt Polly, or the widow, or maybe Mary. Aunt Polly—Tom’s Aunt Polly, she is—and Mary, and the Widow Douglas is all told about in that book, which is mostly a true book, with some stretchers, as I said before.
	\item Now the way that the book winds up is this: Tom and me found the money that the robbers hid in the cave, and it made us rich. We got six thousand dollars apiece—all gold. It was an awful sight of money when it was piled up. Well, Judge Thatcher he took it and put it out at interest, and it fetched us a dollar a day apiece all the year round—more than a body could tell what to do with. The Widow Douglas she took me for her son, and allowed she would sivilize me; but it was rough living in the house all the time, considering how dismal regular and decent the widow was in all her ways; and so when I couldn’t stand it no longer I lit out. I got into my old rags and my sugar-hogshead again, and was free and satisfied. But Tom Sawyer he hunted me up and said he was going to start a band of robbers, and I might join if I would go back to the widow and be respectable. So I went back.
	\item —from \textit{The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn} by Mark Twain
\end{quotation}

\subsection{Customizing Quotations with the \texttt{quoting} Package}

As you can see in the above examples, the indentation is not consistent in those environments, and neither of them provide a good means of providing an attribution, which is commonly typeset as right-justified. The \texttt{quoting} package provides a number of options which are not available within the default environments of \LaTeX{}. However, it still does not provide a means of attributing the quotations. The best way may be to do it outside of whichever quotations environment you end up using.

For example, this code:

\begin{Verbatim}[frame=lines, numbers=left, xleftmargin=5mm, framesep=3mm, breaklines=true, label=\fbox{Quoting Example}]
\begin{quoting}[
	indentfirst=false,
	font=itshape,
	begintext={\includegraphics[scale=0.5]{left-quote}},
	endtext=''
]
	\item Once more unto the breach, dear friends, once more;
\end{quoting}
\begin{flushright}
—William Shakespeare, \textit{Henry V}, Act II, Scene 1
\end{flushright}

\end{Verbatim}


produces this example:

\begin{quoting}[
	indentfirst=false,
	font=itshape,
	begintext={\includegraphics[scale=0.5]{left-quote}},
	endtext=''
]
	\item Once more unto the breach, dear friends, once more;
\end{quoting}
\begin{flushright}
—William Shakespeare, \textit{Henry V}, Act II, Scene 1
\end{flushright}

\noindent{}I can probably live with that.

\chapter{Math in \LaTeX{}}

\LaTeX{} has a couple of different environments that are useful for typesetting math (\texttt{align} and \texttt{array}, but they get a little beyond what I want to cover here. In addition, there are other packages (in particular \texttt{amsmath} and \texttt{mathtools}) that greatly extend the power of LaTeX to handle mathematical typesettings, but again, they are beyond the scope of this book.

\section{Math Entry Modes}\label{math-entry-modes}

There are two types of \textit{entry modes} for math in LaTeX. The first is \textbf{in-line mode}, which begins and ends with a dollar sign, and renders the math in the same line of text as the rest of the paragraph. For example, 

\begin{Verbatim}[frame=lines, label=\fbox{In-Line Math Example}, framesep=3mm]
The Pythagorean Theorem is $x^2 + y^2 = z^2$.
\end{Verbatim}

\noindent{}renders as \\

\noindent{} The Pythagorean Theorem is $x^2 + y^2 = z^2$. \\

This is particularly useful if you want to include Greek characters in your text, because the code for the letter is simply the letter itself. For example, \verb+&\alpha$+ renders as $\alpha$. Need capital letters?\footnote{At least for the characters where the Greek and Latin alphabets \textit{don't} share a common character} Just capitalize it: \verb+$\Gamma$+ $\rightarrow \, \Gamma$.

Math in \LaTeX{} can also be shown in \textbf{display mode}, which renders the mathematics on a separate line. The entry mode begins with \verb+\[+ and ends with \verb+\]+. If we change our example up above to this:

\begin{Verbatim}[frame=lines, label=\fbox{Display Mode Math Example}, framesep=3mm]
The Pythagorean Theorem is \[x^2 + y^2 = z^2\]
\end{Verbatim}

\noindent{} we get this: \\

The Pythagorean Theorem is \[x^2 + y^2 = z^2\]

\section{Brackets and Parentheses}

Brackets and parentheses are common in mathematical formulas, so it is natural that \LaTeX{}  has a number of ways of typesetting these.

\begin{longtblr}
[
	caption = {Brackets and Parentheses in Math Mode},
	label   = {tbl:brackpar}
]{
	width   = {114.3mm},
	colspec = { X[2,l] X[2,l] X[1,l] },
	hlines  = {0.75pt,solid},
	vline{1,4}  = {0.75pt,solid},
	rows    = {5mm, m, rowsep=1.5pt}
}
	\textbf{Type} & \textbf{Code} & \textbf{Example} \\
	Parentheses; \newline round brackets & \Verb|(a+b)| & $(a+b)$ \\
	Brackets; \newline square brackets & \Verb|[a+b]| & $[a+b]$ \\
	Braces; curly brackets & \Verb|\{a+b\}| & \{a+b\} \\
	Angle brackets & \Verb|\langle a+b \rangle| & $\langle a+b \rangle$ \\
	Pipes & \Verb:|a+b|: & $|a+b|$ \\
	Double Pipes & \Verb:\|a+b\|: & $\|a+b\|$ \\
\end{longtblr}


\subsection{Adjusting Size Dynamically}

To dynamically size brackets and parentheses, you can use \verb+\left+ and \verb+\right+ commands. For example, this code

\begin{Verbatim}[frame=lines, numbers=left, xleftmargin=5mm, framesep=3mm]
\[
F=G \left( \frac{m_1 m_2}{r^2} \right)
\]
\end{Verbatim}

produces this output:

\[
F=G \left( \frac{m_1 m_2}{r^2} \right)
\]

Note that \textit{both} commands are required. 

If you are writing a multi-line equations in an \texttt{align}, \texttt{align*}, or \texttt{aligned} environment, you must balance \verb+\left+ and \verb+\right+ both on each line, and on the same side of the \texttt{\&} delimiter. If an opening or closing bracket is not required, you can use an invisible bracket to balance them, i.e., \verb+\left.+ and \verb+\right.+.

\subsection{Adjusting Size Explicitly}

You can also control the size of brackets and parentheses explicitly:

\medskip

% Provide some additional spacing in this table; may move this to preamble later
%\setlength{\tabcolsep}{10pt}
%\renewcommand{\arraystretch}{1}

\noindent{}
\begin{longtblr}
[
	caption = {Explicit Size Commands}
]{
	colspec = { X[7,l] X[2,c] },
	hlines  = {0.75pt,solid},
	vlines  = {0.75pt,solid},
	rows    = {5mm, m, rowsep=1.5pt}
}
\textbf{Markup} & \textbf{Renders as} \\

\Verb+\bigl( \Bigl( \biggl( \Biggl(+ & $\bigl( ~\Bigl( ~\biggl( ~\Biggl($ \\

\Verb+\bigr] \Bigr] \biggr] \Biggr]+ &  $\bigr] ~\Bigr] ~\biggr] ~\Biggr]$ \\

\Verb+\bigl\{ \Bigl\{ \biggl\{ \Biggl\{+ &  $\bigl\{ ~\Bigl\{ ~\biggl\{ ~\Biggl\{$ \\

\Verb+\bigl \langle \Bigl \langle+ \Verb+\biggl \langle \Biggl \langle+ &  $\bigl  \langle ~\Bigl \langle ~\biggl \langle ~\Biggl \langle$ \\

\Verb+\bigr \rangle \Bigr \rangle+ \Verb+\biggr \rangle \Biggr \rangle+ &  $\bigr \rangle ~\Bigr \rangle ~\biggr \rangle ~\Biggr \rangle$ \\

\Verb+\big| \Big| \bigg| \Bigg|+ &  $\big| ~\Big| ~\bigg| ~\Bigg|$ \\

\Verb+\big\| \Big\| \bigg\| \Bigg\|+ &  $\big\| ~\Big\| ~\bigg\| ~\Bigg\|$ \\

\Verb+\bigl \lceil \Bigl \lceil+ \Verb+\biggl \lceil \Biggl \lceil+ &  $\bigl \lceil ~\Bigl \lceil ~\biggl \lceil ~\Biggl \lceil$ \\

\Verb+\bigr \rceil \Bigr \rceil+ \Verb+\biggr \rceil \Biggr \rceil+ &  $\bigr \rceil ~\Bigr \rceil ~\biggr \rceil ~\Biggr \rceil$ \\

\Verb+\bigl \lfloor \Bigl \lfloor+ \Verb+\biggl \lfloor \Biggl \lfloor+ &  $\bigl \lfloor ~\Bigl \lfloor ~\biggl \lfloor ~\Biggl \lfloor$ \\

\Verb+\bigr \rfloor \Bigr \rfloor+ \Verb+\biggr \rfloor \Biggr \rfloor+ &  $\bigr \rfloor ~\Bigr \rfloor ~\biggr \rfloor ~\Biggr \rfloor$ \\
\end{longtblr}


\section{The \texttt{align} Environment}

You can use the \texttt{align} environment to typeset long equations and formulas and get them to line up nicely. 

Break your lines with \verb+\\+ and use \& to show where the equations should align.

\begin{Verbatim}[frame=lines, numbers=left, xleftmargin=5mm, framesep=3mm, breaklines=true, label=\fbox{align Example}]
\begin{align}
a_1 & = b_1+c_1\\
a_2 & = b_2+c_2-d_2+e_2\\
a_2+d_2-e_2 & = b_2+c_2
\end{align}

\begin{align*}
a_1 & = b_1+c_1\\
a_2 & = b_2+c_2-d_2+e_2\\
a_2+d_2-e_2 & = b_2+c_2
\end{align*}
\end{Verbatim}

\begin{align}
a_1 & = b_1+c_1\\
a_2 & = b_2+c_2-d_2+e_2\\
a_2+d_2-e_2 & = b_2+c_2
\end{align}

\begin{align*}
a_1 & = b_1+c_1\\
a_2 & = b_2+c_2-d_2+e_2\\
a_2+d_2-e_2 & = b_2+c_2
\end{align*}

\bigskip

A couple of things to note:

\begin{itemize}[noitemsep]
 \item \texttt{align} is itself a math environment, so you don't need to use a separate math entry mode as described above.
 \item \texttt{align} (no asterisk) produces numbered equations, whereas \texttt{align*} produces unnumbered equations.
\end{itemize}


\section{The \texttt{array} Environment}

You can typeset matrices and other similar objects using an \texttt{array} environment. A couple of things to note:

\begin{itemize}[noitemsep]
 \item \texttt{array} can only be used in a math environment.
 \item You must declare the number and alignment of the columns by using something like this:\vspace{0.5em} \\ \vspace{0.5em} \verb+\begin{array}{crl}+ \\ In this instance, we are declaring one centered column, one right-aligned column, and one left-aligned column. 
\end{itemize}

In the example below, I've chosen animal names to make the column alignment more explicit.

\begin{Verbatim}[frame=lines, numbers=left, xleftmargin=5mm, framesep=3mm, breaklines=true, label=\fbox{array Example}]
\[ % Begin math environment
Zoo~animals = \left\{ \begin{array}{crl} 
lion & hippopotamus & gnu \\
elephant & zebra & kangaroo \\
bear & camel & naked~mole~rats 
\end{array}\right\}
\] % End math environment
\end{Verbatim}

\[ % Begin math environment
Zoo~animals = \left\{ \begin{array}{crl} 
lion & hippopotamus & gnu \\
elephant & zebra & kangaroo \\
bear & camel & naked~mole~rats 
\end{array}\right\}
\] % End math environment

\paragraph{Note:} Because the \texttt{array} environment is designed for math applications, rather than a text application like our example, I had to use a $\sim$ to add the spaces in ``Zoo animals'' and ``naked mole rats''.

If the built-in \texttt{array} environment cannot do all that you want, use the \texttt{amsmath} package and its \texttt{matrix} environment, which provides more options.

\section{Special Math Environments}

You can use the \texttt{nicefrac} package to get fractions with a diagonal slash. This is an ordinary fraction inline (using the \texttt{frac} command): $\frac{3}{4}$, and this is a ``nice'' fraction inline (using the \texttt{nicefrac} command): $\nicefrac{3}{4}$.

The following array shows the difference between ordinary and ``nice'' fractions in display mode:

\[\begin{array}{ccc}

\frac{3}{4} & & \nicefrac{3}{4}

\end{array}\]


\chapter{Images}


\chapter{Referencing}

\section{Internal References}

To refer to something somewhere else in your document, you first have to label it using the \verb+\label{}+ command:\label{example1}

\begin{Verbatim}
This is a line of text. \label{example1}
\end{Verbatim}

To refer to it, you can use \verb+\ref{example1}+. This will insert either the section number, the page number, the equation number, or the figure number, depending on what you attached the label to.

If you \textbf{must} refer to a page number, use \verb+\pageref{example1}+. 

\begin{Verbatim}[frame=lines,framesep=3mm, breaklines=true, label=\fbox{Cross-Referencing Example}]
Internal references (i.e., cross-references) are explained in section \ref{example1} on page \pageref{example1}.
\end{Verbatim}

\noindent{}produces this output:

\klab{8pt}{Cross-Referencing Example}{8pt}

\noindent{}Internal references (i.e., cross-references) are explained in section \ref{example1} on page \pageref{example1}.

\krule{8pt}{8pt}

I very rarely use cross references and so I am not terribly adept at their many uses. They are a powerful feature of \LaTeX{} though, so if you are interested, I urge you to visit \kref{https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/LaTeX/Labels_and_Cross-referencing}{https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/LaTeX/Labels\_and\_Cross-referencing} for more detailed information.

Keep in mind that you will need to compile your document \textbf{twice}. The first time \LaTeX{} will figure out which page each \texttt{label} is on. The second time, it will plug those pages numbers into the \texttt{ref} and \texttt{pageref} commands.

\section{Bibliographies}

\LaTeX{} has two major ways of handling bibliographies: an embedded system using the \texttt{bibitem} command, and an external system using \texttt{BibTeX}. Both systems have their advantages and disadvantages. 

The advantage of using the embedded system is that it is simpler and therefore easier to understand and use. It also compiles faster. The disadvantage is that it is not as powerful as \texttt{BibTex}. But it will suffice quite nicely if you are writing a limited number of documents.

The advantage of using \texttt{BibTex} is that it is much more powerful, and if you are writing longer documents, or related groups of documents that pull from the same group of references, it greatly simplifies managing your bibliography. That power comes at a price, however, as it is more complicated (thus the ways to make mistakes are more numerous) and it does take longer to compile.

Describing either system is beyond the scope of this booklet. However, Wikibooks has an excellent tutorial at \kref{https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/LaTeX/Bibliography_Management}{https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/LaTeX/Biblio\\graphy\_Management}.

\bigskip

\noindent{}Keep in mind that the command you will need to build that bibliography is\footnote{I am adding this here for my own reference more than anything else.}

\begin{verbatim}
bibtex build/lbol
\end{verbatim}

\paragraph{Note:} If the bibliography tools that are built into \LaTeX{} seem like overkill to you, consider whether or not your document actually \textit{needs} a bibliography. I could have done it for this book, but it made much more sense to me to simply add links in footnotes. If you are writing for a publication, or writing a thesis or dissertation, you will need to follow the style guide provide. But in most other circumstances, the choice will be yours.


\chapter{Macros}

\section{New Commands}

If you often use a group of commands together, you can group them into a single command by using the \verb+\newcommand[]{}+ command in the preamble.

The square brackets contains a number that indicates the number of variables you are going to pass to the new command. The curved brackets contain the new command. For example, this code in the preamble:

\begin{verbatim}
\newcommand\krule[2]{\vspace{#1}\hrule\vspace{#2}}
\end{verbatim}

\noindent{}defines a new command ``krule'' that places a horizontal line (\verb+\hrule+) with a vertical space (\verb+\vspace+) above and below it. It contains two variables, one for the height of the first vertical space and one for the height of the second vertical space. In practice, this rule would be used like this:

\begin{verbatim}
\krule{12pt}{6pt}
\end{verbatim}

\paragraph{Note:} In this format, you must always pass the units to the new command when you execute it. You can also define this rule to have the units built into the new command like this:

\begin{verbatim}
\newcommand\krule[2]{\vspace{#1pt}\hrule\vspace{#2pt}}
\end{verbatim}

and to use it, you would enter

\begin{verbatim}
\krule{12}{6}
\end{verbatim}

This means less typing, but you are always restricted to using the same units. 

\chapter{Installation}

\section{Installing \LaTeX{}}

Nope. I'm not going to discuss this subject, because this would make this a very long book, and it would also make it a quickly outdated and inaccurate book. Your best approach would be to do a web search for your operating system + ``\texttt{install latex}''. If you want a GUI (and who doesn't?), search for your operating system + ``\texttt{install latex gui}''.

\section{Installing \LaTeX{} Packages on Ubuntu}

\paragraph{Caveat:} This worked for me on Ubuntu 22.04. I cannot guarantee it will work for you. I cannot even guarantee that it will work for me again.

\subsubsection{Method 1}

Every once in a while I run into a package that I want to use with LaTeX that is not installed on my system. Alas, there is no easy way to do this, at least that I found. \textit{Later}, I always thought. I'll figure that out later.

\textit{Later} became \textit{today} when I wanted to use the \texttt{harmony} package to produce some music symbols but couldn't, because it wasn't installed on my system. It took some doing, but I finally figured it out. Here's what I did:

First, I downloaded the \texttt{harmony} package from \href{https://www.ctan.org/pkg/harmony}{\texttt{https://www.ctan.org \\ /pkg/harmony}} and unpacked the archive. That was easy enough.

Next, I had to figure out where to put it. I ran this command: 

\begin{verbatim}
$ kpsewhich -var-value TEXMFLOCAL
\end{verbatim}

which gave me this location:

\begin{verbatim}
/usr/local/share/texmf
\end{verbatim}

Following the directions I found at \href{https://jvgomez.github.io/pages/manually-install-latex-packages-in-ubuntu.html}{\texttt{https://jvgomez.github.io/pages/manu\\ally-install-latex-packages-in-ubuntu.html}} I entered that directory using \texttt{sudo} and created the following directory structure:

\begin{verbatim}
/usr/local/share/texmf/tex/latex/harmony
\end{verbatim}

I then copied my files over from the unpacked \texttt{harmony} files:

\begin{verbatim}
$ sudo cp * /usr/local/share/texmf/tex/latex/harmony
\end{verbatim}

I then had to update the search path to make my system aware of the new package:

\begin{verbatim}
$ sudo mktexlsr
\end{verbatim}

This should have been the end of it, but the \texttt{harmony} package requires a certain set of fonts to do its work. After a bit of searching, I found them at \href{https://ctan.org/tex-archive/fonts/musixtex-fonts}{\texttt{https://ctan.org/tex-archive/fonts/musixtex-fonts}}.

Fortunately, that package had a pdf document that described how to install the fonts. I started by copying the ``fonts'' folder over the \texttt{texmf} directory:

\begin{verbatim}
$ cp fonts /usr/local/share/texmf
\end{verbatim}

And then I updated the search path and then the font-map files with these commands:

\begin{verbatim}
$ sudo mktexlsr
$ sudo udpmap-user --enable MixedMap musix.map
\end{verbatim}

Like I've said elsewhere, I'm running a recently updated Ubuntu 22.04 system, and this worked for me. It may work for you, it may not. I can't even guarantee that it will work for me next time. (I suspect having a generic folder name like ``fonts'' may cause me issues down the road if I ever want to install some other LaTeX fonts.) But if I got it to work once, I'm pretty sure I can get it to work again. We shall see.

\subsubsection{Method 2}

A perhaps easier (and certainly more \textit{portable}) way of installing LaTeX packages is to add them to a local directory along the lines of:

\begin{verbatim}
/home/user/texmf
\end{verbatim}

This is how I installed the \textit{musixtex} package, and it far simpler than what I have described in method 1.

First, I downloaded the package and unpacked it. Then I copied its contents into my \texttt{texmf} directory, and finally updated the filename database:

\begin{verbatim}
$ cp * ~/texmf
$ texhash ~/texmf
\end{verbatim}


\chapter{Miscellaneous}

\section{What I Learned About \LaTeX{} While Creating This Issue}

\subsection{Image Sizes}

A few people have noted on Reddit that the images I include are far larger than I need them to be. This is true. I had a lot of things like this in issue \#2:

\begin{verbatim}
\includegraphics[scale=0.5]{paper_cutter}
\end{verbatim}

\noindent{}And it seems that the worst offender was this line:

\begin{verbatim}
\includegraphics[scale=0.13]{c128}
\end{verbatim}

This is a problem because that \texttt{paper\_cutter.jpg} image is 136kb in size and that \texttt{c128.jpg} image is 2.3 mb in size. Because these get included in \LaTeX{}, which then handles the scaling, the resulting pdf file is rather bloated, which is the exact opposite of what you want when you are distributing something via the internet. 

Because I am scaling the paper cutter image by 0.5, the resulting file size should be about a fourth of that, or 34 kb. And because I'm scaling the c128 image by 0.13, the corresponding file size should be about 0.0169 of that, or roughly 40 kb in size. That's a huge difference.\footnote{Roughly, the size of your file should be approximately reduced by the square of your scaling factor. But these are jpg files, which are lossy, so it's never exactly that amount.}

The problem is that I always envisioned this zine as being a physical object, not a digital one. I only uploaded it to my git repository because this is a learning project for me, and I wanted to keep track of any changes I made. 

But yeah, you should definitely resize your images before including them in any document you intend to distribute digitally. (Thank you, GIMP.) You'll notice that the image of the VT100 terminal on page 5 clocks in at a very sensible 79 kb. That's more like it.

\subsection{Miscellaneous Things}

\begin{itemize}[noitemsep]
	\item Notice that your footnotes are floating above the footer on some pages? Try adding \verb+\usepackage[bottom]{footmisc}+ to your preamble.
	\item Need to control the gap between the header and the rest of the text? Pass the \verb|headsep| argument to the \texttt{geometry} package and set it equal to the amount of space you need (i.e., \texttt{headsep=12pt}).
	\item If you want to add a degree symbol to inline text, the simplest way I've found (so far) is to just pop in and out of math mode with this: \verb|$^{\circ}$| which gives you this: $^{\circ}$
\end{itemize}

\chapter{Troubleshooting}

\section{Minimal Working Examples}

In particular with \LaTeX{}, it can help if you create an MWE (minimal working example) when working with new things, to rule out interference from other bits of code.

For example, the preamble to this document is currently 135 lines. (This includes blank lines to make it easy to scan.) But if I were trying to diagnose some page layout issues with the \texttt{geometry} package, an MWE might look like this:

\begin{Verbatim}[frame=lines, numbers=left, xleftmargin=5mm, framesep=3mm, breaklines=true, label=MWE Example]
\documentclass[twoside, 9pt]{extreport}
\usepackage[
	paperheight=8.5in,
	paperwidth=5.5in,
	margin=0.5in
]{geometry}
\usepackage{lipsum}

\begin{document}
\lipsum[1-20]
\end{document}
\end{Verbatim} 

I now have 11 lines to deal with instead of the current 1,129 lines I have. This means I am focused solely on solving this issue with the \texttt{geometry} package and nothing else. If I suspect that another package is causing the problem, I can always add in that package and run a test with it. And because I am only loading two packages, the pdf compiles very quickly.

\section{\texttt{\}\%} is Your Best Friend}

If you are getting an error in a long line (long because it has a lot of commands in it), you can try commenting out the entire line by placing a \texttt{\%} at the beginning of it. If that clears up the problem, you can isolate which command is causing the issue by placing \texttt{\}\%} at the end of next to the last command and recompiling. If the error goes away then you know the problem lies in the last command.

If it doesn't, move the to the end of the second next to the last command and try again. In this way, you can determine which command is causing the problem.

Keep in mind that the error may not be in the line in question. The line where \LaTeX{} is indicating where it is stumbling. The error may be in a variable you called somewhere else, or in how you loaded the package in the preamble. 

\section{Learn How to Ask Good Questions}

If you get serious about learning anything, you'll eventually find yourself with a problem which you can't solve, which means that you will need to ask for help, most likely in one of forums listed on page \pageref{othersources}. If you spend any amount of time on those forums, you will quickly learn (if you are observant) that there are good ways to ask questions and bad ways to ask a question. 

In general, a good question has three parts:

\begin{enumerate}[noitemsep]
	\item A statement of what you are trying to achieve.
	\item What you have already done to achieve that.
	\item What results you are actually getting.
\end{enumerate}

\noindent{}Examples of bad question include:

\begin{itemize}[noitemsep]
	\item Questions without an MWE.
	\item Saying ``it doesn't work'' but you not explaining what you were expecting and/or what results you are getting.
	\item Homework questions that are basically ``how do you do \texttt{<thing>}?'' but for which it is quite apparent that you have done no actual research yourself, much less tried to do yourself.
	\item Thinly disguised complaints about how \LaTeX{} works, or the structure of the forum, or how a package is documented, etc.\footnote{To be fair, not all packages are documented equally. \LaTeX{} has contributors from all over the globe, and the package documentation which \textit{you are reading in English} may well have been written by someone for whom English is a second, third, or fourth language. Asking for \textit{clarification} about something in the documentation is perfectly fine; \textit{complaining} about it is not.}
	\item Questions which could be very easily answered by simply reading the package documentation.
\end{itemize}


\end{document}
